Baalbek Archaeological Site
1. Prehistoric Beginnings
- Neolithic Period (~9000 BC): Archaeological evidence suggests that Baalbek was inhabited as early as the Neolithic period. Its location in the Beqaa Valley made it ideal for early human settlement due to fertile lands and access to water.
- It likely began as a small agrarian community.
2. Canaanite and Phoenician Era
- By the 3rd millennium BC, Baalbek was a prominent religious site for the Canaanites and later the Phoenicians.
- It was dedicated to Baal, the storm and fertility god, and Astarte, the goddess of love and war. The name "Baalbek" means "Lord (Baal) of the Beqaa."
- The site was home to temples and altars built for rituals to honor these deities.
3. Hellenistic Period (4th–1st Century BC)
- After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, Baalbek fell under Hellenistic influence and was renamed Heliopolis, meaning "City of the Sun."
- Greek culture and religious practices mingled with local traditions, but Baalbek remained a significant religious center.
4. Roman Period (1st Century BC – 4th Century AD)
- Baalbek reached its zenith during Roman rule.
- Around the 1st century BC, the Romans began an ambitious construction project to build massive temples dedicated to their gods. The Temple of Jupiter: One of the largest religious structures in the Roman world. The Temple of Bacchus: A remarkably well-preserved and ornate temple. The Temple of Venus: A smaller but elegant temple.
- Baalbek became a pilgrimage site and showcased Roman engineering and architectural grandeur.
- The city was part of the Roman province of Syria and later the Byzantine Empire, continuing its religious importance.
5. Islamic Period (7th–13th Century CE)
- Baalbek fell to the Muslim armies during the 7th century CE, under the Rashidun Caliphate.
- Its religious role shifted, with some Roman temples converted into mosques or repurposed.
- Under the Umayyads, Abbasids, and later Mamluks, Baalbek retained its significance as a regional center and was fortified against invaders.
6. Medieval Period
- The Crusaders briefly occupied Baalbek during the 12th century but were unable to hold it for long.
- The city returned to Muslim control and continued to flourish under the Mamluks, who added fortifications and other structures.
7. Ottoman Period (1516–1918)
- Under Ottoman rule, Baalbek became a quieter provincial town.
- Its ruins were rediscovered by European travelers during the 18th and 19th centuries, sparking archaeological interest.
Here are the main monuments:
1. Temple of Jupiter
Dedicated to Jupiter Heliopolitanus, the chief deity of the Roman pantheon.
- This was the largest temple in the Roman world, with a massive podium and towering columns.
Originally, it had 54 columns, each standing 20 meters high and 2.2 meters in diameter. Today, only 6 columns remain standing.
- The sheer scale of this temple underscores its importance as a religious and political statement of Roman power.
2. Temple of Bacchus
Dedicated to Bacchus, the god of wine, fertility, and revelry.
- Often mistaken as the Temple of Jupiter due to its grandeur, the Temple of Bacchus is exceptionally well-preserved.
- It features richly decorated friezes and reliefs depicting vines, mythical creatures, and Roman deities.
- The temple measures approximately 69 meters in length and 36 meters in width, with 42 columns, each 19 meters tall.
3. Temple of Venus
Dedicated to Venus, the goddess of love and beauty.
- A smaller but elegantly designed temple, known for its curvilinear and circular shape, which contrasts with the more rectilinear designs of the other temples.
- The temple stands apart from the main complex and exhibits unique features of Roman decorative styles.
4. The Great Court
Served as the grand entrance to the Temple of Jupiter and a gathering space for worshipers.
- The court measures about 135 meters by 113 meters and features altars, pools, and smaller structures used for rituals.
- Its layout includes a hexagonal forecourt, surrounded by columns and flanked by staircases leading to the temples.
- 5. The Hexagonal Court
- Transitional space between the Great Court and the Temple of Jupiter.
- This court is unique in its hexagonal shape, surrounded by a colonnade.
- It was used for ceremonies and as a preparatory area for pilgrims approaching the temples.
6. Propylaea (Monumental Entrance)
The grand gateway leading into the temple complex.
- Features a wide staircase and a colonnaded structure, creating a dramatic approach to the temples.
- The Propylaea was a symbol of the grandeur and sanctity of the site.
7. Stone of the Pregnant Woman (Hajar al-Hibla)
An unfinished monolith lying in a nearby quarry.
- This is one of the largest monolithic stones ever quarried, estimated to weigh over 1,000 tons.
- Its purpose remains debated, but it is believed to have been intended for the Temple of Jupiter.
8. Other Features
- Roman Columns: Scattered across the site, these towering structures showcase the intricate craftsmanship of Roman engineers.
- Underground Passages: Likely used for rituals or as service areas for temple activities.
- Byzantine and Islamic Additions: Later modifications include a Christian basilica and Islamic fortifications.
The Baalbek archaeological site occupies a total area of approximately 5 hectares (about 12 acres).
Here are the key museums that showcase Baalbek's treasures:
1. Baalbek Museum
- Displays artifacts excavated from the site, including statues, inscriptions, reliefs, and architectural elements.
- Items date from the Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic periods.
- Provides visitors with context about the site's history and significance.
2. National Museum of Beirut
- One of the most important museums in Lebanon, it houses a rich collection of artifacts from across the country, including items from Baalbek.
- Exhibits include Roman-era statues, mosaics, and inscriptions, many of which were discovered at Baalbek.
- The museum's collection also features sarcophagi and other items that illustrate daily life and religious practices in ancient Baalbek.
3. American University of Beirut (AUB) Archaeological Museum
- Houses a collection of artifacts from various archaeological sites in Lebanon, including Baalbek.
- Items include pottery, tools, and small objects that reflect the daily lives of Baalbek's ancient inhabitants.
4. Louvre Museum
- The Louvre has a significant collection of artifacts from the Levant, including items from Baalbek.
- Objects include reliefs, sculptures, and inscriptions brought to Europe during 19th and early 20th-century excavations.
5. British Museum
- Features a collection of items from Lebanon and the wider Levant, including materials linked to Baalbek.
- Displays include Roman sculptures, inscriptions, and other artifacts acquired during archaeological missions in the region.
6. Pergamon Museum
- Known for its collection of ancient artifacts from the Near East, it includes items related to Roman and Hellenistic Baalbek.
- Architectural fragments and reliefs may be tied to Baalbek's influence in the region.
7. Local Museums in Lebanon
- Other smaller museums in Lebanon, such as the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory (Saint Joseph University, Beirut), may also house artifacts from Baalbek or provide insights into the region’s broader archaeological context.

The Baltimore Museum of Art (BMA) was founded in 1914 when it was officially incorporated and began building its collection. Its permanent building opened to the public on April 19, 1929.
In October 2020, the BMA announced it would sell three major paintings — by Andy Warhol, Brice Marden, and Clyfford Still — from its permanent collection to raise roughly $65 million for diversity, equity, and inclusion programs as well as other institutional needs. The plan immediately sparked widespread criticism from museum professionals, donors, and community members, who argued that selling high-value works to fund general operations and equity initiatives violated museum ethics and deaccessioning norms. Many said collections should not be treated as financial assets.
Backlash included:
- Letters to Maryland officials calling for intervention.
- Artists resigning from the museum’s board.
- Two former board chairs rescinding $50 million in pledged gifts in protest.
- National media criticism of both the plan and museum leadership.
Less than 24 hours before the scheduled auction, the BMA canceled the sale in response to the firestorm of criticism — a dramatic reversal that highlighted governance tensions and ethical debates in the museum world.
Director Asma Naeem.

The historical origins of the Bangladesh National Museum is the Dacca Museum established in 1913. The Bangladesh National Museum was formally inaugurated in 1983.
The exhibitions are arranged chronologically from prehistory to the present day. The collection of gold, silver and copper coins from various periods of Bangladesh and Indian history is notable. The museum has one of the largest collections of armor and weapons in the Indian subcontinent. He is in possession of a large collection of paintings by Shilpacharya Zainul Abedin (1914-1976). One of the permanent exhibitions presents all phases of the Bengalis' struggle for political freedom, economic emancipation and cultural identity in the years 1757-1971.
The Bangladesh National Museum occupies a building with a total area of nearly 18,800 square meters.

The Bardo National Museum was established in 1882. It was officially opened to the public on May 7, 1888.
The Bardo National Museum houses one of the most significant archaeological collections in the Mediterranean region. Its collections span prehistoric, Punic, Roman, early Christian, Islamic, and modern periods of Tunisian history. Here are some highlights:
1. Roman Mosaics (Largest Collection in the World)
- The museum is famous for its extensive collection of Roman mosaics, considered one of the finest in the world.
- Notable pieces include:
• The Virgil Mosaic – Depicting the poet Virgil with the Muses.
• The Triumph of Neptune – A massive mosaic from Dougga.
• The Mosaic of the Cyclops Polyphemus – From ancient Bulla Regia.
2. Punic Artifacts (Carthaginian Heritage)
- Artifacts from ancient Carthage, including Punic sarcophagi, jewelry, amulets, and stelae from the Tophet (a sacrificial burial site).
- Objects from Punic sanctuaries and tombs.
3. Greek and Roman Sculptures
- Marble busts of Roman emperors.
- Statues of gods and goddesses from sites like Dougga, Thuburbo Majus, and Carthage.
4. Early Christian and Byzantine Collections
- Christian mosaics, sarcophagi, and objects from churches and basilicas in Tunisia.
- Byzantine-period jewelry and liturgical objects.
5. Islamic Art and Medieval Tunisia
- Manuscripts, Qur'anic texts, and calligraphy.
- Ceramics and glazed pottery from Kairouan and Mahdia.
- Wooden panels and stucco decorations from palaces and mosques.
6. Numismatic Collection (Coins)
- Coins from different periods, including Punic, Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic coins.
7. Prehistoric Artifacts
- Stone tools, pottery, and artifacts from prehistoric sites in Tunisia.
According to available information, the museum holds over 8,000 exhibits.
The Bardo National Museum covers an area of approximately 20,000 square meters. The exhibition area is approximately 9,000 square meters.

Bayerische Verwaltung der staatlichen Schlösser, Gärten und Seen (Bavarian Administration of State-Owned Palaces, Gardens and Lakes), also called Bayerische Schlösserverwaltung (Bavarian Palace Department), traces its historical origins to the 18th century.
Bavarian Palace Department manages:
1) palaces:
Ansbach
Aschaffenburg
Bamberg
Bayreuth
Burghausen
Cadolzburg
Chiemsee
Coburg
Dachau
Eichstätt
Ellingen
Feldafing
Herrenchiemsee
Höchstädt
Holzhausen
Kelheim
Kempten
Königssee
Kulmbach
Landshut
Linderhof
Ludwigsstadt
Munich
Neuburg
Neuschwanstein (The construction of Neuschwanstein Castle for the Bavarian King Ludwig II Wittelsbach began in 1869. The building was built in honor of the German composer Ryszard Wagner as an idealized medieval knight's castle. The architecture and interior design are marked by the romantic eclecticism of the 19th century, and the building itself is one of the most important works of historicism. After the king's death in 1886, the castle was opened to the public. Usable area of about 6,000 square meters.)
Nuremberg
Riedenburg
Schachen
Schleißheim
Veitshöchheim
Würzburg
2) gardens:
Ansbach
Aschaffenburg
Bamberg
Bayreuth
Cadolzburg
Coburg
Dachau
Eichstätt
Ellingen
Feldafing
Herrenchiemsee
Holzhausen
Linderhof
Munich
Nuremberg
Schleißheim
Veitshöchheim
Würzburg
3) fortifications, villas, theaters, opera houses, memorial sites and 21 lakes.


© Bayerische Schlösserverwaltung
www.schloesser.bayern.de
Neuschwanstein view from the Marienbrücke
Photo Martha Feustel

Beijing Museum of Natural History founded in 1951.
With 24,000 square meters, the exhibition's total area is 8,000 square meters. The collection includes paleontological specimens, invertebrates, birds and mammals, in total over 200,000 specimens.

The collection of paintings stored at Belvedere was made publicly available in 1781. Currently, art collections are presented in Lower Belvedere, Upper Belvedere and Belvedere 21. They cover works of art from the Middle Ages to the present day. The attention of visitors is attracted by the world's largest collection of Gustav Klimt's paintings.

Belvedere Palace © Lukas Schaller / Belvedere, Vienna

The Benaki Museum (Μουσείο Μπενάκη) was established in 1930. It was officially opened to the public on 22 April 1931.
The Benaki Museum is actually a complex of 10 thematic museums: Museum of Greek Culture, Pireos 138, Museum of Islamic Art, Ghika Gallery, Yannis Pappas Studio, Toy Museum, Leigh Fermor House, ‘NEMA’, Valadoros Collection, Delta House.
Major Collections
1. Greek Culture / Greek Art & Material Culture
- A panorama of the Greek world “from Prehistory to the Modern State (ca 1940)”.
- Includes:
• Prehistoric, Ancient Greek and Roman antiquities: Neolithic tools/figurines, Cycladic vases, Mycenaean jewellery & vases.
• Byzantine and post-Byzantine art: manuscripts, icons, ecclesiastical vessels, jewellery, church furnishings.
• The modern Greek period: clothing, furniture, decorative objects, national costumes from 17th-19th c onward.
- More than 40,000 items in the Greek culture collection.
2. Paintings, Drawings & Prints
- The museum holds nearly 6,000 works (European artists 17th-19th c + Greek artists 19th-20th c).
- These sit alongside material culture items, bridging “fine art” and everyday/ceremonial material.
3. Childhood, Toys & Games
- A distinctive and somewhat less typical collection: toys, games, childhood-objects from antiquity to the 1970s, from Greece and beyond.
4. Coptic Art
- Objects from the Coptic period of Egypt: textiles, metalwork, wood-carvings.
5. Chinese & Far East Art
- The museum includes a collection of Chinese works (ceramics, bronzes, decorative arts) spanning from the 3rd millennium BC to the 19th century.
6. Islamic Art
- One of its standout collections globally. More than 8,000 works covering the evolution of Islamic art (7th-19th c) from regions including Persia, Arabia, North Africa, India.
- Objects such as ceramics, metalwork, textiles, glass, weaponry and a reception-room interior from 17th-c Cairo.
The museum houses more than 100,000 objects overall.
Exhibition area: 1000 m².

The Berardo Collection Museum established in 2007, collects modern and contemporary art. Among the more than 1,000 works of art exhibited at the permanent and temporary exhibitions, you can see the works of Pablo Picasso. Salvador Dalí, Marcel Duchamp, Andy Warhol, Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock, Francis Bacon, Alexander Calder and Maria Helena Vieira da Silva.

The Berlin Wall Memorial created in 1998 commemorates the division of Berlin by Walls and the victims of the Berlin Wall. It stretches along 1.4 kilometers of the former border strip between Berlin (the capital of the DDR) and West Berlin. Fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. The Wall Memorial includes: the outdoor memorial site with the last piece of the Berlin Wall, Documentation center, Chapel of Reconciliation, memorial window and Visitor Service Center,

Blenheim Palace was built between 1705 and 1722 in the English Baroque style. It is the seat of the Dukes of Marlborough. It combines the functions of a family home, a mausoleum and a national monument.
Blenheim Palace has 187 rooms that cover an area of 28,000 square meters. Blenheim Palace is home to The Palace State Rooms, Sir Winston Churchill Exhibition, among others. The Blenheim Art Foundation (BAF) is located at Blenheim Palace, organizing exhibitions of contemporary art.
Blenheim Palace is surrounded by formal gardens and landscaped parkland covering over 800 hectares in total.

The Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford was officially established in 1602 by Sir Thomas Bodley. The library opened to the public on November 8, 1602.
The Bodleian Library is one of the most significant libraries in the world, with extensive collections spanning various subjects. Some of its most notable collections include:
1. Manuscripts and Rare Books
- Medieval Manuscripts – Includes illuminated manuscripts, such as the Ashmole Bestiary and The Book of Hours.
- Gutenberg Bible – One of the earliest books printed with movable type.
- Shakespeare’s First Folio (1623) – A rare edition of Shakespeare’s collected plays.
- Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts – Including the Lindisfarne Gospels and Red Book of Hergest.
2. Maps and Cartography
- Gough Map (c. 1360) – One of the earliest detailed maps of Britain.
- Selden Map of China (17th century) – A rare Chinese maritime trade map.
3. Personal Papers and Archives
- J.R.R. Tolkien’s Papers – Including drafts and illustrations for „The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit”.
- C.S. Lewis Collection – Personal writings of the author of „The Chronicles of Narnia”.
- Mary Shelley’s „Frankenstein” – Original handwritten manuscript.
- Letters and Diaries of British Prime Ministers – Including papers from Winston Churchill.
4. Eastern and Non-Western Collections
- Islamic Manuscripts – Including Persian, Arabic, and Ottoman texts.
- Chinese, Japanese, and Sanskrit Texts – Rare books from across Asia.
- Hebrew Manuscripts – Important Jewish texts, including biblical and Talmudic works.
5. Scientific and Medical Collections
- Codex Mendoza – A 16th-century Aztec codex detailing the history and culture of the Aztec Empire.
- John Dee’s Collection – Works of the famous Elizabethan alchemist and astrologer.
- Robert Hooke’s Micrographia – A groundbreaking 1665 book on early microscopy.
6. Modern and Digital Archives
- Literary Archives – Includes modern authors such as Philip Pullman.
- Oxford University Archives – Documents related to the history of the university.
- Digitized Collections – Many manuscripts and books are available online through projects like Digital Bodleian.
The Bodleian Libraries at the University of Oxford collectively hold over 13 million printed items. Additionally, they house more than one million special collection items, including manuscripts, archives, and rare books.
The Bodleian Libraries at the University of Oxford encompass multiple buildings with a combined gross internal floor area of approximately 42,774 square meters as of the 2020–2021 period. Additionally, the Book Storage Facility (BSF) in Swindon, designed to house lower-usage items from the libraries' collections, offers around 10,000 square meters of warehouse space, complemented by 1,000 square meters of ancillary office and processing areas. Therefore, the combined area of the Bodleian Libraries' main buildings and the BSF is approximately 53,774 square meters.
The Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford features several exhibition spaces, primarily within the Weston Library. The main public area, Blackwell Hall, serves as the central hub for visitors, offering access to exhibitions, a café, and a gift shop. While the exact total exhibition area isn't specified in the available sources, the Weston Library includes a hall measuring 854 square meters, which is utilized for various events, including exhibitions. Additionally, the Old Schools Quadrangle, part of the historic Bodleian complex, houses spaces that have been repurposed for exhibitions and other public functions.

The building of the Borneo Cultures Museum (BCM) is the biggest development project in the history of the Sarawak Museum since it was established in 1891. The BCM, opened in 2022 is the first museum in Malaysia to be certified as a Green Building under the Green Building Index (GBI). The five-storey building consists of climate controlled permanent and temporary exhibitions spaces, Children's Gallery, function room, auditorium, restaurant, and a souvenir shop.
There is also an Arts and Crafts Gallery which includes activity labs and a dance studio. In the theme-based permanent exhibitions, the BCM offers immersive and interactive experiences for visitors using audio-visual technology and interactive displays. The usage of modern technology in the BCM enhances the artefacts display and supports the storyline of the exhibition.
The thematic galleries at the BCM are as follows:
At Level 2, the Children’s Gallery offers a distinct experience that is specifically targeted to primary school children. In the ‘Love Our Rivers’ gallery, children go on an adventure with the River Guardians to learn about the rivers of Sarawak and how to keep them clean.
At Level 3, in the ‘In Harmony with Nature’ gallery, visitors encounter the cultures of the people who live in the coastal, rainforest and highland regions of Sarawak. Visitors can listen to stories, see zoological specimens and immerse themselves in the rich biodiverse environments.
At Level 4, in the ‘Time Changes’ gallery, visitors travel through time to explore the development and evolution of human settlements in Sarawak since the Paleolithic period. This level features archaeological and historical artefacts, and covers the significant events that shaped the history of Sarawak.
At Level 5, the ‘Objects of Desire’ gallery showcases the beauty of the artefacts. The gallery features the best examples of material culture from the collections of the Sarawak Museum. This gallery allows visitors to explore the uniqueness and value of these objects to the local communities of Sarawak.

The Center for Fine Arts, opened in 1928, has been using the name BOZAR since 2002.
It includes exhibition and conference rooms, a cinema and a concert hall. In total, it covers an area of 33,000 square meters.
BOZAR organizes up to 10 exhibitions per year.

The British Museum was founded in 1753. The British Museum has over 8 million exhibits, including 80,000 on exhibitions. The collection consists primarily of monuments of ancient history. The collections are presented in nine sections:
Ancient Egypt and Sudan,
Ancient Greece and Rome,
Near East,
Asia,
Africa, Oceania and both Americas,
Great Britain, prehistory and Europe,
Drawing and graphics,
Coins and medals,
Conservation and scientific research.
The most important monuments of the British Museum include:
Rosetta Stone,
carvings from the ancient city of Nineveh,
Letters from Amarna,
royal tombs from Ur,
marbles from the Athenian Parthenon,
one of six caryatids from Erechtheion,
Cyrus cylinder,
reliefs from Nineveh,
sketches of Michelangelo, Rafael, Leonardo da Vinci.

The Buckingham Palace was originally built in 1703 for the Duke of Buckingham, later extended many times. Since 1837, it has been the official London residence of the British monarch.
Length 108 meters, width 120 meters, height 24 meters. Area of 77,000 square meters. Number of rooms 775.
The palace interiors have a 50-meter long Picture Gallery with paintings by Rembrandt, van Dyck, Rubens and Vermeer. In the corner of the palace there is the Queen's Gallery with old masters' paintings, valuable furniture, decorative art, and representative examples of photographs. Historical royal carriages are located next to the gallery in the Royal Mews.
The palace is surrounded by a 17 hectare garden and park.

Royal Collection Trust / © His Majesty King Charles III 2023, photo Andrew Holt

The Bytown Museum was established in 1917, founded by the Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, initially known as the Bytown Historical Museum.
The Bytown Museum offers a rich array of collections and exhibitions that delve into the city’s birth and development—from its Indigenous roots to modern-day Ottawa:
- Permanent Collection (‘Where Ottawa Begins’)
Explores the Ottawa Valley’s early history—from the Anishinàbe Algonquin First Peoples and the founding of Bytown—through the construction of the Rideau Canal and its wild lumberjack era. Continues through the Victorian era, the burning of the Parliament Buildings, and Canada’s involvement in international conflicts. Notable treasures include a cast of Thomas D’Arcy McGee’s death hand, canal-era stone vault doors, historic lithographs and engravings (e.g., 1859 “City of Ottawa” lithograph), and artifacts related to Indigenous and settler life.
- Temporary & Community Galleries
Feature rotating exhibitions on local, regional, and social history: recent examples include health-care evolution (e.g., Capital Healers).
- Digital ‘Stories from the Collection’
A cutting-edge digitization initiative with Carleton Immersive Media Studio, offering 3D-modelled artifacts drawn from storage and galleries. The collection spans Indigenous artifacts, industrial tools, women’s stories, wartime and peacetime life.
- Extra Highlights
A kids’ zone titled ‘A Day in My Life’, located in the community gallery, brings history to life for younger audiences.
The Bytown Museum holds an impressive collection of nearly 15,000 artifacts.